DU 7 College
3rd Year 2021-22, Exam 2024
Suggestion for Part C (Essay-type)
by Literature Xpres
Introduction to Linguistics - ENH 308
- Mention any five characteristics/features of human language. ★★★
- Classify English consonant sounds according to their manner of articulation. ★★★
- Classify English consonant sounds according to their place of articulation. ★★★
- Draw a diagram to show the articulators used in human speech production. Explain the functions. ★★★
- Discuss five word formation processes with examples. ★★★
- What is syntax? Discuss the major syntactic processes elaborately.
- What are the key features of semantics? Explain conceptual and associative meanings. ★★★
- Who is Noam Chomsky? Evaluate Chomsky’s contribution to linguistics? ★★★
- Discuss different stages of child language development. ★★★
- Discuss the five hypotheses of Krashen’s Monitor Model. Or, what do you know about the Monitor Model Theory of Stephen Krashen? ★★★
- Evaluate the behaviourist theory of language acquisition as proposed by Pavlov, Skinner, and Watson.
- Give a brief account of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. ★★★
- How is spoken language different from written language? ★★★
- Discuss the different varieties of sociolinguistics.
- Discuss the relationship between language and culture. ★★★
ANSWERS
1. Mention any five characteristics/features of human language. ★★★
Language is a special gift for humans. It helps us to talk and think. We use it every single day. It helps us share ideas and feelings. Language is used for speaking and writing. It also helps us understand others. Besides, animal sounds are not like language. Human language is very rich and unique. It has some special features too. Let us discuss the main characteristics of language and how it works in our daily lives.
Definition of Language: According to the Cambridge Dictionary, language is "a system of communication consisting of sounds, words, and grammar."
Language is Arbitrary: Words do not have a natural connection. There is no fixed reason behind words. For example, woman means the same thing. But different words are used worldwide. In English, we say "woman" daily. In Urdu, people say "aurat" instead. In French, they use the word "femme." All these words mean the same thing. But the sounds for each word are very different. This example shows that words are not natural signs. People in society choose them. So, the link between word and meaning is based on people's choices, not logic.
Language is Social: Language is used by people together. We live in a society and talk. Language helps people understand each other better. It helps us build strong relationships daily. Without language, there would be silence. People could not work, live, or connect. It is always a tool for communication. It helps express thoughts and culture clearly. Every group of people has a language. Language grows with people in every place. It changes over time and needs. So, language and society grow together forever.
Language is Symbolic: Words are symbols, not real things. They stand for objects, actions, and ideas. The word "tree" is not a tree. It is a symbol we understand. It helps us think of a tree. These symbols are known to all speakers. They are not natural but learned early. We learn them from family and school. We understand words because we learn them. Language becomes meaningful through these known symbols.
Language is Systematic: Language always follows clear rules and patterns. It is not just random sounds together. Each language has its own system. Grammar helps us speak and write correctly. There are rules for sentence formation, too. Rules also help in making plurals. We follow the rules to ask questions properly. There are also rules for verb tense. Without grammar, language would be confusing. Though every language is different, each one has its special rule-based system.
Language is Vocal and Sound-Based: Language is mainly spoken by mouth. We use tongue, lips, and voice. Speaking came first in human history. Writing came later as a tool. We learn to speak before writing. Speech is always more natural than writing. Writing is a way to record speech. So, language starts from sound and voice.
Language is Productive and Creative: We can say new things each day. Even if they have never been said before, others can easily understand them. We create new sentences and ideas freely. Language has many words and rules inside. We mix them in new ways. We also create new words often. Language grows with new things and needs. It helps us imagine and dream clearly. We talk about the past or future, too. So, language is creative and continuously growing.
In conclusion, language is a strong and helpful tool. It helps us live and learn better. We use it to think and speak. It helps us share and connect deeply. The features show that language is very special. It is used in every part of life. Understanding its features helps us know more. Language is always important in human life.
2. Classify English consonant sounds according to their manner of articulation. ★★★
English has many different consonant sounds. These sounds are not all made the same way. The way we make a consonant sound is called the "manner of articulation." This means how we move our mouth, tongue, or lips. It also means how air flows out. The Manner of Articulation helps us to learn sounds. This term is very popular in the chapter "Phonetics and Phonology." Let us discuss the six manners of articulation in the following manner.
Plosive Consonants: Plosives are called stop sounds in English. The air is stopped completely for a moment. Then, it is released suddenly with a pop. The sound is short and clear in English. The English plosives are /b/, /d/, /g/, /k/, /p/, and /t/. Examples are "bat," "dog," "gun," "cat," "pen," and "top." Plosives use the lips or the tongue for stopping.
Fricative Consonants: Fricatives are made by forcing air out slowly. The air passes through a small gap. This makes a hissing or buzzing sound. There is friction and a long, noisy sound. Fricatives in English are /f/, /v/, /θ/ (as in "think"), /ð/ (as in "this"), /s/, /z/, /ʃ/ (as in "ship"), /ʒ/ (as in "measure"), and /h/ (as in "hat"). Examples are "fin," "van," "ship," "zip," and "hat." These sounds need careful tongue or lip position.
Affricate Consonants: Affricates are really two sounds pressed together. First comes a stop/plosive, then a fricative sound. The air first stops, then comes out with friction. Affricate sounds in English are /tʃ/ and /dʒ/. You find them in "chip" and "judge." These sounds start like plosives but end like fricatives. They need the tongue to touch the roof of the mouth.
Nasal Consonants: Nasal consonants let air go through the nose. The mouth is blocked by the tongue or lips. The air escapes only from the nose. English has three nasals: /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/. They are in words like "man," "no," and "sing." The nose makes the sound soft and humming. Nasals are very easy for children to say.
Approximant Consonants: Approximant or semi-vowel sounds are smooth and almost like vowels. The tongue comes near but does not touch enough to make noise. Air moves freely and quietly through the mouth. English approximants are /r/, /j/, and /w/. Examples are "red," "yes," and "we." These sounds are made without any strong friction.
Lateral Consonant (Lateral Approximant): There is only one lateral sound in English. It is /l/ as in "let" and "bell." The tongue touches the roof of the mouth. The air goes around the sides of the tongue. That is why it is called lateral.
Overview: The following list covers all the “Manner of Articulation” with examples.
- Manner of Articulation | Sounds | Example Words
- Plosives | /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/ | pen, bat, dog
- Fricatives | /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/ | fin, van, ship, zip
- Affricates | /tʃ/, /dʒ/ | chip, judge
- Nasals | /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ | man, sing
- Approximants | /r/, /j/, /w/ | red, yes, we
- Lateral | /l/ | let, bell
To conclude, English consonant sounds are made in different ways. These ways are called manners of articulation. Each manner creates a unique sound. They show how speech sounds are formed in the mouth. It improves English speaking, listening, and understanding skills. When learners practice these sounds, their speech becomes better. This knowledge is useful for improving language skills overall.
3. Classify English consonant sounds according to their place of articulation.
Or, classify English phonemes/consonants according to their places of articulation.
Consonant sounds are produced when the flow of air is stopped or narrowed in some way. We can understand and classify consonant sounds by their place of articulation. Place of articulation means where the sound is produced in the mouth. Different parts of the mouth work together to produce different consonant sounds. Here we will classify English consonant sounds according to their place of articulation.
Place of Articulation
Place of articulation means the point in the mouth where the air is blocked or touched to produce a sound. It tells us which speech organs are used. These organs include lips, teeth, tongue, and the roof of the mouth. We can see the places of articulation in this diagram.
Bilabial Consonants: Bilabial sounds are produced when both lips come together. The air is stopped or released by the lips. English has four bilabial consonant sounds. These sounds are /p/, /b/, /m/, and /w/.
For example, in the words pen, bat, and man, the lips are used. These sounds are easy to notice because the lips clearly touch each other.
Labio-Dental Consonants: Labio-dental sounds are produced when the lower lip touches the upper teeth. English has two labio-dental sounds. These are /f/ and /v/.
For example, in the words fan and van, the lower lip touches the upper teeth. Air passes through a small gap and creates these sounds.
Dental Consonants: Dental sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue touches the upper teeth. English has two dental consonant sounds. These are /θ/ and /ð/.
For example, think and this. These sounds are common in English but difficult for many learners because they do not exist in many languages.
Alveolar Consonants: Alveolar sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. The alveolar ridge is the hard part just behind the upper teeth. English has many alveolar sounds. These are /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/, and /r/.
Words like top, dog, sun, and nose use alveolar sounds. These are very common sounds in English.
Palato-Alveolar Consonants: Palato-alveolar sounds are produced when the front of the tongue touches the area between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. English has four palato-alveolar sounds. These are /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, and /dʒ/.
Examples are ship, measure, chair, and judge. These sounds are softer and longer than alveolar sounds.
Palatal Consonants: Palatal sounds are produced when the front of the tongue touches the hard palate. English has one main palatal consonant sound. This is /j/.
For example, the word yes. The tongue moves close to the hard palate to produce this sound.
Velar Consonants: Velar sounds are produced when the back of the tongue touches the soft palate, also called the velum. English has three velar consonant sounds. These are /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/.
Examples include cat, go, and sing. These sounds are produced deeper in the mouth.
Glottal Consonant: The glottal sound is produced in the glottis, which is the space between the vocal cords. English has one glottal consonant sound. This is /h/.
For example, hat. No tongue or lip is used strongly. The sound comes from the throat.
In conclusion, English consonant sounds can be clearly classified by their place of articulation. Each group depends on a different part of the mouth. These include bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, palato-alveolar, palatal, velar, and glottal sounds. This classification helps learners understand how English sounds are produced. It also helps in correct pronunciation and clear speech.
4. Draw a diagram to show the articulators used in human speech production. Explain the functions. ★★★
Speech organs help us produce spoken language. They work together to make different sounds. Air comes up from the lungs below. It passes vocal folds/vocal cords, gets sound, or stays quiet. Then, the sound moves through the pharynx and mouth. The tongue, lips, teeth, and palate shape the sound. Nasal sounds use the nose for airflow. Every speech sound uses several organs together.
The following diagram shows the main organs used for speech production. Let us discuss each important organ and its function.
Lips (Upper and Lower): Lips are at the front of the mouth. We use our lips to open or close. They help in making sounds like “p,” “b,” “m.” Lips can be rounded or spread wide. Different lip shapes give us varied sounds.
Teeth: Teeth are right behind the lips. They help make clear and sharp sounds. Sounds “t,” “d,” “s,” and “z” need teeth. The tongue also touches teeth for clear speech. Teeth help give shape to some words.
Alveolar Ridge: This is a bony structure in the upper and lower jaws. It holds the tooth sockets. The tongue touches it for “t,” “d,” “n.” It helps in making clear, crisp sounds. English uses the alveolar ridge very often.
Hard Palate: This is the hard roof of our mouth. The tongue touches it for some sounds. It is used for sounds like “sh,” “j,” “ch.” It helps in making many English sounds.
Soft Palate (Velum): This is the soft part behind the palate. We can feel it at the back. It moves up to close the nose. Soft palate helps in making “k” and “g.” It directs air to mouth or nose.
Tongue: The tongue is a flexible, moving muscle. It has different parts: tip, blade, back, and root. The tip makes sounds like “t,” and “d.” The back of the tongue makes sounds like “k,” and “g.” The tongue moves around to make many sounds. The tongue touches the palate, ridge, and teeth.
Uvula: Uvula hangs down at the end of velum. It helps in making some language sounds. Not all languages use it for speech. It helps block air from the nose.
Oral Cavity: This is the main space inside the mouth. Air flows through here for most sounds. The tongue and lips move inside it.
Nostrils and Nasal Cavity: Air goes out from the nostrils. The nasal cavity is above the mouth. It helps in making nasal sounds. Sounds like “m,” “n,” and “ng” need it. Air passes through here instead of the mouth.
Larynx and Vocal Folds (Cords): Larynx is also called the voice box. It sits in the throat, below the pharynx. Vocal folds are inside the larynx itself. Vocal folds can open and close quickly. When air passes, vocal folds vibrate and give voice. Without vocal folds, there will be no voicing.
Pharynx: The pharynx is the back part of the throat. It connects the mouth and nose to the larynx. Sounds echo and gain power here. Changing the pharynx shape changes the voice quality.
Epiglottis: Epiglottis is above the larynx in the throat. It covers the windpipe when swallowing. It helps protect the airway during eating. Some rare sounds are made using the epiglottis.
Glottis: The Glottis is the opening between the vocal folds. When vocal folds open, air passes through the glottis. Some sounds use open glottis, like “h.” Voice starts and stops at the glottis.
To conclude, these speech organs are very important for talking. They help us make many different sounds. Every word we say uses these organs. Without them, speech and singing are not possible. All these organs work together for human language.
5. Discuss five word formation processes with examples. ★★★
Word formation means the way new words are made in a language. English has many ways to form new words. These processes help the language grow and change. People create new words to express new ideas, objects, and actions. In linguistics, some word formation processes are very common and important. Here we will discuss five word formation processes with examples.
I. Compounding: Compounding is a word formation process where two or more words are joined together to make a new word. The meaning of the new word is often related to the original words. This process is very common in English.
For example, the word blackboard is formed from black and board. The word classroom comes from class and room. Another example is toothbrush, which is formed from tooth and brush.
II. Derivation: Derivation is the process of forming new words by adding prefixes or suffixes to a root word. A prefix comes before the word, and a suffix comes after the word. This process often changes the meaning or the word class.
For example, adding un- to happy makes unhappy. Adding -ness to kind makes kindness. The word teacher is formed by adding -er to teach. Derivation is very important in English vocabulary building.
III. Conversion: Conversion is the process where a word changes its word class without any change in form. The word remains the same, but its function changes.
For example, the word book is a noun, but in the sentence “Please book a seat,” book is used as a verb. The word run can be a verb or a noun. No extra letters are added.
IV. Clipping: Clipping is a word formation process where a long word is shortened. The meaning stays the same, but the word becomes easier to use.
For example, advertisement becomes ad. Laboratory becomes lab. Examination becomes exam. Clipping is often used in daily conversation and informal speech.
V. Acronym: An acronym is formed by using the first letters of a group of words. The letters make a new word.
For example, NATO comes from North Atlantic Treaty Organization. UN comes from United Nations. AIDS comes from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Acronyms save time and are widely used in modern English.
In fine, word formation processes help English create new words easily. Compounding, derivation, conversion, clipping, and acronyms are very common processes. They make language rich and flexible. Understanding these processes helps students improve their vocabulary and understand how English words are formed.
6. What is syntax? Discuss the major syntactic processes elaborately.
The Syntax is derived from the Greek word 'syntaxis,' which means 'ordering together' or 'together arranging.' Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are arranged to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Every language has its own Syntax. Correct Syntax makes meaning very clear. Wrong Syntax can confuse the reader. By studying Syntax, we learn how sentences are built.
Definition of Syntax: According to the Cambridge Dictionary, Syntax is "the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence." For example, in English, we say, "The cat is sleeping," rather than "Sleeping cat the is."
Major Syntactic Processes: Syntactic processes are part of Syntax. They help us make correct sentences. They help join or change words. The main syntactic processes are Agreement, Subordination, Coordination, Negation, Interrogation, Passivization, Ellipsis, and so on. Let us discuss them in detail below.
Agreement: Agreement means matching words together. Mainly, subject and verb must agree. If the subject is singular, then the verb should be singular too.
- Example: He walks to school daily.
Here, "He" is singular, so "walks" fits. If the subject is plural, then the verb must also be plural.
- Example: They walk to school every day.
Here, "They" is plural, so we use "walk". Wrong agreement makes the sentence incorrect.
- Example: "He walk to school." This sentence is wrong.
This is why agreement is important. It keeps the sentence grammatically correct and smooth.
Subordination: Subordination joins two different clauses. One clause is the main or independent. The other is a dependent clause. A dependent clause cannot stand alone.
- Example: She stayed because it rained.
Here, "Because it rained" gives a reason. It explains why "She stayed" happened. It cannot stand alone with meaning. Words like because, if, although show subordination. This process helps make complex sentences.
Coordination: Coordination joins equal sentence parts. They can be two words or clauses. We use and, but, or for joining.
- Example: He studies, and she works.
Here, both clauses are complete and equal. "Studies" and "works" are balanced ideas. Coordination adds variety and clear meaning. It makes writing smoother and clearer.
Negation: Negation makes a sentence negative. It says something is not true. We use not, no, never, etc.
- Example: She is not tired today.
Here, "Not" makes the sentence the opposite. Without it, the meaning changes completely. Negation helps express rejection or refusal. It is used in daily speaking.
Interrogation: Interrogation means asking a question. It changes word order in a sentence. We also use question words.
- Example:
Statement: She is coming today.
Question: Is she coming today?
Here, "Is" comes before the subject "she". That makes it a proper question. Words like what, when, why are used. Interrogation helps ask questions correctly.
Passivization: Passivization changes active to passive voice. It changes the focus of the sentence.
- Example:
Active: He wrote a letter.
Passive: A letter was written by him.
In the passive form, object becomes subject. It is used in formal writing more. Sometimes, we do not mention the doer. That is helpful when the doer is unknown.
Ellipsis: Ellipsis removes repeated words or ideas. It makes the sentence short and clear.
- Example: She likes coffee, and he does too.
Here, we remove "likes coffee" after "he does." Still, we understand the full meaning. Ellipsis avoids repeating the same thing. It makes sentences clean and easy.
To sum up, Syntax is how we build sentences. It follows the rules for clear meaning. Syntactic processes help us write better. They join, change, or shorten words. Agreement, negation, and passivization are important. Without Syntax, language would be confusing. So, Syntax is the heart of grammar.
7. What are the key features of semantics? Explain conceptual and associative meanings. ★★★
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It helps us understand how words, phrases, and sentences carry meaning. Every language has rules for meaning, and semantics studies those rules. Studying semantics helps us learn about how meanings change in different situations and why some words have multiple meanings.
For example, the word "bank" means a place where we keep money. The same word also means the side of a river (river bank). Understanding such differences is part of semantics.
Key Features of Semantics
Semantics has several important features that help us understand meaning in language:
Literal Meaning: Semantics focuses on the basic, dictionary-like meaning of words. For example, “apple” means a round fruit that grows on trees.
Context: Words can change meaning based on where or how they are used. For example:
- “Cool” can mean “not warm” (temperature) or “awesome” (slang).
- "Light" can mean “not heavy” or “bright” depending on the context.
Ambiguity: Some words or sentences have multiple meanings. For example:
- “Bank” can mean a riverbank or a place to save money.
- “Bat” can mean a cricket bat or an animal.
Synonyms & Antonyms: Synonyms are words with the same meaning (e.g., “big” and “large”). Antonyms are words with opposite meanings (e.g., “hot” vs. “cold”).
Relationships Between Words: Semantics looks at how words connect. For example:
- “Dog” is a type of “animal” (category relationship).
Conceptual and Associative Meaning
Semantics includes different types of meanings. Two important types are conceptual meaning and associative meaning.
Conceptual Meaning (Literal Meaning): Conceptual meaning is the basic, dictionary meaning of a word. It is the same for everyone and does not depend on emotions or personal experiences. It follows rules of grammar and logic.
Examples of Conceptual Meaning:
- "Dog" means a four-legged animal that barks.
- "Water" means a clear liquid that we drink.
- "Tree" means a tall plant with leaves and branches.
Conceptual meaning is important because it helps us understand words clearly in any situation.
Associative Meaning (Emotional or Related Meaning): Associative meaning is not fixed and depends on personal feelings, culture, and experiences. Different people may have different associations with the same word.
Examples of Associative Meaning:
- “Home”
Conceptual meaning: A place where someone lives.
Associative meaning: For some, “home” feels warm and safe. For others, it might remind them of arguments or sadness.
- “Snake”
Conceptual meaning: A long, legless reptile.
Associative meaning: In Western cultures, snakes might symbolize danger or evil. In Hinduism, snakes can represent wisdom or rebirth.
- “Red”
Conceptual meaning: A color.
Associative meaning: Love (e.g., red roses) or danger (e.g., stop signs).
Importance: Understanding conceptual and associative meanings is important. It helps us express ourselves better and avoid misunderstanding. For instance, “slim” and “skinny” both mean “thin” (conceptual meaning). However, “slim” has a positive associative meaning (healthy), while “skinny” can sound negative (too thin). “Vintage” and “Old” both mean “not new” (conceptual meaning). However, “vintage” has a positive associative meaning (cool and classic), while “old” can sound negative (worn-out).
To wrap up, Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It helps us understand how words, sentences, and contexts create different meanings. Two important types of meaning are conceptual meaning (fixed, dictionary meaning) and associative meaning (personal and emotional meaning). Conceptual meaning stays the same for everyone, while associative meaning can change based on culture, feelings, and situations. Understanding these meanings helps people communicate better and avoid confusion in language.
8. Who is Noam Chomsky? Evaluate Chomsky’s contribution to linguistics? ★★★
Noam Chomsky was born in 1928 in the USA. He is a professor and a writer, too. Chomsky is known for his work in linguistics. Many people call him the "father of modern linguistics." He has written many books and articles. Chomsky has taught at MIT for many years. His ideas are known all over the world. Many students and scholars follow his work. He is also a political activist and critic. He always supports the Palestinian cause. Let us discuss his major contribution to linguistics.
Generative Grammar: Chomsky introduced generative grammar in “Syntactic Structures” (1957). Generative grammar is a system of rules. It explains how we make correct sentences. He said our brain has grammar rules. These rules help us form endless sentences. Generative grammar clearly shows the structure of sentences. It uses deep structure (meaning) and surface structure (spoken form). This grammar helps us know how language works. It is useful for studying language scientifically. It also helps understand language learning and sentence-making.
Universal Grammar and Innate Ability: Chomsky suggested that all people share grammar skills. This idea is called Universal Grammar. He said children are born ready for language. Children capture their first language through the "Language Acquisition Device" (LAD). This is different from old theories. Universal Grammar says every language has common rules. These make it easier to learn any language. Chomsky’s theory showed that language is not just learned. Instead, language is also an inborn ability. This idea affected studies on how children learn languages. It also assists teachers in understanding language problems.
Minimalist Program: In the 1990s, Chomsky started the Minimalist Program. This program looks for the simplest language rules. It asks what the most basic system is needed. The goal is to make grammar models smaller and easier. Chomsky wanted to explain language with the fewest rules. Many linguists use this program for their research. By this, experts find which features are the most important in language.
Competence and Performance: Chomsky described two sides of language ability. “Competence” means what a person knows about a language. This is about how grammar and words work in the mind. “Performance” means the real use of language in life. Performance can be affected by stress, memory, or mistakes. If someone says something wrong, it is a performance issue. Their competence, or grammar knowledge, is still strong. This difference helps researchers focus on mental grammar rules. Teachers also use this idea to study children’s language mistakes.
Impact on Many Fields: Chomsky’s ideas helped linguistics grow as a science. His theories connect linguistics with psychology and neuroscience. Computer experts use his grammar in AI programs. His ideas help teachers teach language. Philosophers and anthropologists use his ideas, too. Chomsky’s methods show how humans share basic language tools.
Criticism: Many people questioned his theories. Some experts believe language is only learned by social use. Others think that different cultures shape language learning. Some say Universal Grammar cannot explain every language difference. Scientists ask for more evidence from experiments. However, many still respect Chomsky’s work. His theories started new research and debates.
To sum up, Chomsky’s work transformed linguistics. He gave many new theories, like the Nativist Theory. He always works on how language works. His ideas made language study more scientific and analytical. Chomsky’s research influences teaching, technology, and psychology. He has helped experts understand how people know and use language. His contributions are lasting and important for language study.
9. Discuss different stages of child language development. ★★★
Child language development happens step by step. Every child learns language in different stages. Each stage has special features and landmarks. This process shows how children become good at speaking. Experts study these stages to understand language learning. Knowing about each stage helps parents and teachers to support children. Child language development stages vary from baby to baby. Let us now move to the main discussion.
The Different Stages of Child Language Development: Recent experts have identified seven stages of child language development. The stages are:
Pre-linguistic or Babbling Stage: This is the first stage for babies. It begins at birth and lasts until about one year old. Babies make simple noises called whispering or babbling. These sounds include "goo," "ga," or "ba." Babbling does not have any real words yet. Babies play with sound and repeat simple patterns. They listen to their parents and try new sounds. Smiles, eye contact, and gestures are also important here. Babbling prepares babies for real language soon.
Holophrastic or One-Word Stage: This stage starts around one year old. The child now says single words for messages. One word can mean a whole idea, like "Milk" might mean "I want milk now." Children use simple words for people, things, and actions. Vocabulary is still very small at this stage. Children listen, copy, and learn new words quickly. This stage is very important for building language basics.
Two-word Stage: This stage usually occurs at about eighteen months. Children use two words together to express ideas. For example, are "want cookie," "mama come," or "go out." Words are simple, but the child can show needs, wishes, or feelings. Grammar is not used correctly yet. Word order can sometimes change meaning. The two-word stage shows the start of real sentences. Children's vocabulary grows quickly in this time. Parents can understand most words now.
Telegraphic Stage: The telegraphic stage begins at around age two. Children's speech has three or more words together. Sentences are still short and simple, like "mommy go work." Children leave out small words like "the," "is," or "a." Only the most important words are used. This is like a telegram message (Only main words were used to express a complete sentence.) The grammar rules are not perfect yet, but they have improved slowly. Vocabulary continues to grow at this stage. Children ask simple questions and use plurals or past forms sometimes.
Multiword Stage: From about age three, sentences become longer and more complex. Children use full grammar, longer sentences, and ask more questions. "Where is my red ball?" is an example of this stage. Children use correct word order. They start using pronouns, negatives, and more tenses. Mistakes still happen, but speech is clearer. Storytelling, describing events, and longer talks start here.
Complex Sentences Stage: Children use complex sentences around the age of four or five. They use joining words like "and," "but," and "because." They can share detailed stories, ideas, and wishes. Sentences are mostly correct and can be understood by all adults. Children often ask "why" and "how" questions. They still learn new words and grammar every day. By this stage, language is very close to the adult speaking level.
Later Development: From about age six, children keep learning language. Their vocabulary grows with school and reading. Their grammar skills get stronger with age and practice. Their spoken and written language becomes rich and detailed.
In conclusion, child language development goes through clear, natural stages. Each stage brings new skills and understanding. Children move step by step from sounds to full sentences. Each stage helps children to become strong speakers. Studying these stages gives valuable knowledge to parents, teachers, and scientists.
10. Discuss the five hypotheses of Krashen’s Monitor Model.
Or, what do you know about the Monitor Model Theory of Stephen Krashen? ★★★
Stephen Krashen is a famous linguist. He created the Monitor Model for second language learning. The theory explains how people learn new languages. It is very important in the study of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). This model has five main parts or hypotheses. Many teachers use this model to understand and improve language teaching. Let us discuss the major parts.
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: This first part says there are two ways to learn a language. The first way is acquisition. This means learning a language in a natural way. Learners learn by talking and listening a lot. It is how children learn their first language at home. The second way is learning. This means studying rules and grammar in school. Krashen believes that acquisition is better than only learning rules. Natural practice helps people speak and understand faster.
The Monitor Hypothesis: The monitor is like a checker inside. It checks grammar and finds mistakes. It works best when there is enough time. Learners use it if they know the rules well. The monitor helps more with writing than talking fast. Using it too much makes language slow and unnatural. Natural speaking happens better with less checking. According to Krashen, the monitor should only be used sometimes, not always.
The Natural Order Hypothesis: This idea says people learn a language in order. Some grammar comes early, and other rules come late. It is always almost the same for everyone. Children learn easy parts before hard grammar. Teaching grammar in a new order does not work. Learners will learn in the natural order anyway. Teachers cannot change this order by force. It is better to let learning happen naturally.
The Input Hypothesis: Learning happens through hearing and reading language. Input means everything a learner hears or reads. The best input is one level above the learner's current level. Krashen called this "i+1." New ideas should not be too hard. Input must be interesting and easy to understand. Learners guess new things from easy parts. Teachers should give lots of good input every day. The right input helps learners move forward.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis: The affective filter is like a screen or wall. It controls how much language input people let in. Emotions, fear, or stress can make the filter high. If students are worried or nervous, they do not learn well. A low filter means students feel safe and open to learning. Good teachers create a comfortable, friendly classroom. They lower the affective filter with positive support and encouragement. This helps students learn language faster and better.
The Importance in SLA: Krashen's Monitor Model is very important in SLA research. It shows that natural understanding is more effective than just memorizing rules. The model explains why some students learn faster. It says a stress-free, enjoyable environment helps learners. Teachers use these ideas to give more listening and reading time. The model shapes language classes by focusing on meaning first. It also shows that giving too many grammar rules at once may not help. Krashen's model helps teachers plan better lessons for all learners.
In conclusion, the Monitor Model is an important theory in SLA. It has five clear parts about language learning. Krashen's ideas are trusted by experts everywhere. His ideas have changed language education worldwide. It helps teachers and learners get better results.
11. Evaluate the behaviourist theory of language acquisition as proposed by Pavlov, Skinner, and Watson.
Language acquisition means how a child learns language. Many linguists have tried to explain this process. One early explanation is the behaviourist theory of language acquisition. This theory says that children learn language from their environment. They learn by listening, copying, and practicing. Three important thinkers connected with this theory are Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner, and John B. Watson. They believed that language learning is like learning any other habit. Let us evaluate the behaviourist theory of language acquisition below.
Basic Idea of Behaviourist Theory: The behaviourist theory believes that the human mind is empty at birth. A child does not have language naturally. Language comes from the environment. Children learn words and sentences by imitation, practice, and habit formation. When a child speaks correctly, adults praise the child. This praise helps the child remember the correct form. In this way, language becomes a habit. According to behaviourists, language learning is not mental. It is only a response to external situations.
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a Russian physiologist. He is famous for the idea of classical conditioning. Pavlov showed that learning happens through association. He rang a bell every time he gave food to the dogs. After some time, the dogs reacted to the bell because they thought food was coming. Behaviourists later applied this idea to language learning. According to this view, children connect sounds with objects. For example, when a child hears the word “milk” and receives milk, the child learns the word. Slowly, the child connects sounds with meanings. Language is learned by repeated association. However, Pavlov did not study language directly. His work only gave a basic idea for later behaviourists.
Skinner and Operant Conditioning: American psychologist B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) gave the most important behaviourist explanation of language. He used the idea of operant conditioning. Skinner said that children produce sounds randomly. When a sound is correct, parents respond positively. They smile, clap, or give attention. This is called reinforcement. Reinforcement encourages the child to repeat the sound. Slowly, words and sentences are formed. Skinner believed that grammar is also learned this way. According to him, children learn language step by step through reward and punishment. Language is not special. It is only a learned behaviour.
Watson and Habit Formation: Another American psychologist, John B. Watson (1878-1958), popularized behaviourism. He believed that all human behaviour comes from learning. According to Watson, language is a set of habits. Children copy what they hear from adults. Repetition makes these habits strong. Watson rejected the idea of the mind or thinking. He believed that only observable behaviour is important. Language learning, therefore, depends fully on the environment. Parents, teachers, and society help develop the child’s language through training and control.
Evaluation and Limitations: The behaviourist theory has some strengths. It shows the importance of environment, practice, and parental role in language learning. It explains how vocabulary is learned. It shows that correction helps children. However, the theory has many weaknesses. Children often say sentences they have never heard before. This cannot be explained by imitation alone. Parents do not always correct grammar, but children still learn correct grammar. The theory also ignores the mental ability of children. Language is creative, but behaviourism cannot explain creativity.
In conclusion, the behaviourist theory explains language as a habit formation. Pavlov gave the idea of conditioning, Skinner explained reinforcement, and Watson supported habit formation. Together, they showed the role of environment in language learning. However, the theory fails to explain how children create new sentences. Therefore, behaviourist theory is important historically, but it is not a complete explanation of language acquisition.
12. Give a brief account of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is an important idea in linguistics. It talks about the relation between language and thought. This theory says that the language we speak influences the way we think and understand the world. In other words, language does not only help us communicate. It also shapes our ideas, views, and perception of reality. This hypothesis is also called the linguistic relativity hypothesis. It was developed by Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf.
Meaning of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that a person’s native language influences how they think and perceive the world. According to this idea, people who speak different languages may think differently. This happens because languages have different structures, grammar, and vocabulary. These differences affect how speakers understand reality.
We can cite an example from the Hopi language. Native Hopi speakers understand time differently. Hopi time is based on the phases of the moon and the sun, not on minutes, hours, or days of the week. Because of this, Hopi speakers may find it difficult to adjust to English-speaking culture, which uses clocks and calendars.
Language guides thought. So, people do not see the world in the same way if their languages are different.
Role of Sapir and Whorf: The hypothesis was developed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf in 1929. Sapir believed that language is closely connected with culture and thought. Whorf further developed this idea. He studied Native American languages and noticed that language structure affects thinking patterns. Whorf believed that language can shape habits of thought. Together, they proposed that language and thought are deeply linked.
Structural Differences between Languages: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is based on the idea that structural differences between languages affect how people think about reality. Some languages have more words for certain ideas or objects. This helps speakers notice and understand these things more clearly. For example, if a language has names for different shades of blue, the speakers of that language will identify those colors better.
When a language lacks words for something, speakers may find it harder to think about it in detail.
Examples of the Hypothesis
Many examples explain Spair-Whorf hypothesis clearly. In English, words like “fireman” and “policeman” may suggest that only men can do these jobs. This shows how language influences social thinking.
Gendered language also shows this effect. For example, in some cultures, people may say “male nurse” for Shanto but simply “nurse” for Sharmin. Because nursing is seen as a female profession. So, it proves that the language we speak influences the way we think and understand the world.
In Inuit languages, there are many words for snow. This allows speakers to understand snow in great detail. English speakers have fewer words for snow, so their understanding is more limited.
A study on color perception also supports this idea. Languages with more color terms help speakers identify and separate color shades more clearly.
Importance and Criticism: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has created much debate. It is not considered a strong science, and many linguists criticize it. They say language does not fully control thinking. However, research shows that language can influence how people understand the world. So, the hypothesis is not fully rejected.
In fine, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis explains the close connection between language and thought. Developed by Sapir and Whorf, it suggests that language influences how people see reality. Though controversial, many examples show that language affects perception and understanding. Therefore, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis remains an important idea in linguistics.
13. How is spoken language different from written language? ★★★
Language can be used in two main ways. One way is spoken language. The other way is written language. Both are important for communication. However, they are not the same. Spoken language is used in speech, while written language is used in writing. They differ in form, use, and style. In this answer, the differences between spoken language and written language will be explained in very simple language.
Difference in Nature: Spoken language is used when people talk to each other. It is oral and uses the voice. It is usually informal. People speak quickly and naturally. Spoken language happens in real time. There is no chance to plan too much. Speakers often repeat words or change sentences in the middle. This makes spoken language flexible. It also depends on the situation and the listener.
On the other hand, written language is used in books, letters, exams, and newspapers. It is visual and uses written symbols. Written language is usually formal. Writers have time to think and plan before writing. Sentences are more careful and complete. Mistakes can be corrected before the final writing. Written language is more organized and follows grammar rules strictly.
Use of Grammar and Structure: Spoken language does not always follow grammar rules strictly. People often use short or incomplete sentences. For example, people may say, “Coming?” instead of “Are you coming?” Grammar is less important in speech. Meaning is more important.
Written language follows grammar rules carefully. Sentences are complete and clear. Proper punctuation is used. Grammar helps the reader understand the meaning. Without correct grammar, written language becomes confusing.
Role of Context and Situation: Spoken language depends heavily on context. Speakers use facial expressions, gestures, tone, and body language. These help listeners understand meaning. For example, tone can show anger, happiness, or doubt.
Written language does not have these supports. The writer must explain everything clearly using words only. Meaning must come from the text itself. Therefore, written language needs more explanation.
Permanence and Record: Spoken language is usually temporary. Once spoken, words disappear. Unless recorded, speech is lost. This makes spoken language more relaxed and less permanent.
Written language is permanent. It stays on paper or screen. It can be read again and again. Because of this, writers are more careful. Written language is used to keep records, laws, and history.
Vocabulary and Style: Spoken language uses simple and common words. Slang and contractions are common. For example, “can’t” and “don’t” are used in speech.
Written language uses more formal vocabulary. Full forms are preferred. The style is serious and polite, especially in academic and official writing.
In summary, spoken and written language serve different purposes. Spoken language is informal, fast, and depends on situation. Written language is formal, planned, and permanent. Spoken language uses voice and gestures, while written language uses words and structure. Both forms are important and useful. Understanding their differences helps us use language correctly in different situations.
14. Discuss the different varieties of sociolinguistics.
The study of language and society is called sociolinguistics. Language is an important part of human life. People use language to talk and express their thoughts. But language is not the same everywhere. It changes based on society, place, and people. It helps us understand how language works in different situations. There are many varieties of sociolinguistics based on culture, region, and social class. Let us discuss the field below.
Regional Dialects: People from different places speak differently. This is called a regional dialect. A person from Dhaka may speak Bengali differently from a person in Chattogram. Both speak Bengali, but their pronunciation, words, and style are different.
Example:
- In Dhaka, people say: "Tumi kothay jacho?" (Where are you going?)
- In Chattogram, people may say: "Tui honde jor?"
Both mean the same thing, but they sound different. This happens in all languages. People from different regions speak with their own accents and words.
Social Dialects: Sociolects refer to language variations within a particular social class or group. These variations often reflect the speaker's social background, education, and profession. This is called a social dialect.
Example:
- A highly educated person may say: "I am feeling unwell."
- A less educated person may say: "I am sick."
Both sentences mean the same, but the style is different. In many societies, rich and educated people use more formal language, while poor or less educated people use simpler words.
Code-Switching: Sometimes, people mix two languages while speaking. This is called code-switching. Many people do this when they speak Bengali and English together.
Example:
- "Exam ta onek tough chilo!" (The exam was very tough!)
People mix languages when they talk to friends or in the office. It happens in many countries. In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, people mix English and local languages. Code-switching happens because people know more than one language and feel comfortable using both.
Pidgin and Creole Languages: Sometimes, when people from different countries meet, they create a simple language to talk to each other. This is called a pidgin language. It has basic words and no strict grammar. If a pidgin language develops and becomes the main language of a community, it is called a creole language.
Example:
- (Pidgin) Hawaiian Pidgin English – A mix of English and local words used in Hawaii.
- (Creole) Tok Pisin – A language spoken in Papua New Guinea, developed from English.
These languages help people from different places talk to each other.
Slang and Colloquial Language: Slang is informal language used by young people or in casual conversations. Colloquial language is everyday speech that may not follow strict grammar rules.
Example of Slang:
- “That’s cool!" (That’s good!)
- “I’m broke.” (I have no money.)
Example of Colloquial Language:
- Instead of "going to", people say "gonna" (I’m gonna eat).
- Instead of "want to", people say "wanna" (I wanna go).
Slang and colloquial language make speech fun and easy. But they are not used in formal situations like offices or schools.
Jargon (Specialized Language): Jargon is specialized words used in specific professions. Doctors, engineers, and lawyers use different words that normal people may not understand.
Example:
- Doctors use words like "diagnosis," "prescription," and "anesthesia."
- Engineers use words like "voltage," "circuit," and "blueprint."
Jargon helps professionals talk clearly about their work. But common people may not understand it.
To sum up, language is not the same everywhere. It changes based on region, society, situation, and people. Sociolinguistics helps us understand these differences. It also helps us respect different ways of speaking. Language is always changing, and different varieties make it rich and diverse.
15. Discuss the relationship between language and culture. ★★★
Language and culture are very closely connected. Language is not just a way to talk. It also shows how people think and live. Culture shapes people’s beliefs, traditions, and values. At the same time, language helps share and keep these ideas alive. Studying language and culture helps us understand people better. This topic is important for linguists, teachers, and students. Let us now move to the main discussion.
How Language Reflects Culture: Language reflects the culture of its speakers. People use language to talk about their world. Words show what is important in a culture. For example, a language may have many words for rice in a farming culture. In cold places, people have more words for snow. Even greetings show culture. Some cultures say hello very formally. Others use friendly words with everyone. Stories, songs, and jokes are also shared through language. These forms show the history and beliefs of a group.
How Culture Influences Language: Culture shapes how people use language every day. People learn the right words for situations from their society. Culture tells people what is polite or rude to say. This affects how people ask questions or give answers. In some cultures, direct speech is normal. In others, people avoid saying “no” directly. Culture shapes how people use body language and tone. Even the way people tell stories depends on culture. Food, clothing, and festivals also add new words to a language.
Language as a Carrier of Cultural Identity: Language is a big part of personal identity. People feel proud of speaking their own language. Language connects people to their roots and traditions. When people speak their native language, they feel at home. Migrants and minority groups use their language to keep their culture alive. Losing a language can mean losing a part of a group’s culture. That is why many people work to save dying languages.
Communication in Different Cultures: Every culture has its own way of communicating. This includes what people say and how they say it. Some cultures talk a lot. Others prefer quiet and few words. In some cultures, people use many gestures. In others, gestures may be rude. Time, space, and touch in communication also change across cultures. This is called non-verbal communication. It is very important in understanding messages.
Learning a Language and Culture Together: Learning a new language means learning its culture, too. Students need to know more than grammar and vocabulary. Cultural knowledge helps people to use language correctly. Without culture, language lessons are incomplete. Culture tells students how to greet, thank, and apologize. It helps them avoid misunderstandings. It makes the language feel real.
Language Change Through Culture: Languages keep changing with the culture. New technology, music, and customs bring new words. Sometimes, words disappear as cultures change. For example, the word "cassette" is rare now. Instead of "cassette", people use "playlist" or "MP3." Immigration, travel, and social media mix languages together. People borrow words from other languages when cultures meet. Slang and new expressions show how culture is always moving forward.
In conclusion, language and culture are closely linked. Each builds and supports the other. Language spreads culture, and culture gives language its meaning. Studying both helps us understand people’s lives. Language and culture together guide communication and human connection. Their relationship is essential for learning about the world.
